• The issue is racial mixing and the audience is white Americans. He could also be talking to those who disagree with him, inter-racial couples. The gap was that he thinks they don’t understand how negative race amalgamation could be.
• His claim is that there are consequences to racial interbreeding.
• His reason for his claim being true is that his evidence shows that white people are superior. He thinks that interbreeding will lead to a less intelligent human civilization.
• His evidence was data that he made that white people’s brains weighed more than African Americans and other races(pg. 84).
• The warrant is that he is a racist white supremacist.
• The counterargument is, “There is no agreement amongst high authorities… that inter-mixture of different races leads to final extinction of civilization” (pg. 79). He admits that not everyone agrees with his claim and that racial interbreeding will not cause the end of the human race.
• He only included the parts of his research that would benefit his claim, he excluded certain skulls from the data. This is a flaw in his research.

Race Amalagamtion

He believes that a civilized race does not mix with inferior races. He wants to emphasize the differences between the races, because he believes that is what will keep the races separate.The author believes that there are consequences to racial mixing, he excluded certain skulls from his data. He came to the conclusion that that white people’s brains weighed more than African Americans and other races(pg. 84). He believes that one of the main consequences of racial mixing is mixed children. He believes that mixed children are inferior to whites and blacks.

The Mismeasure of Man

These scientific groups thought that men were smarter than women, because they were larger and had bigger brains. However, this experiment was done wrong. Morton did not think about the difference in gender and body size. The experiment between different races’ skulls with the seeds was also done incorrectly. He talks about how Morton chose to leave out subsamples to match group averages. Morton had a racial and gender bias. He also was not right that a bigger brain equaled more intelligence. The argument for slaver was that African Americans were separate and unequal. This argument was brought into the schools.

The activities of the individuals in The Mismeasure of Man match Swales Benchmarks for a Discourse community. The scientific group that the author is talking about had a common set of goals. This group wanted people to see that African Americans were inferior to Whites. They wanted to promote ranking people racially.

This discourse community spread their knowledge through making statements and publishing their experiments.

I think this discourse community set the foundation for the American Jim Crow Laws, because this group kept publishing experiments and statements that dehumanized African Americans. They wanted people to believe that African Americans were racially inferior, and this caused for the Jim Crow Laws to happen. The Jim Crow Laws racially segregated African Americans from Whites.

Plessy vs. Ferguson

Laws were made to justify how Whites treat African Americans. This racial inferiority was taught in schools. The 13th amendment and the 14th amendment can be interpreted to support arguments. For example, the 14th amendment was interpreted in a way that supported the 1875 Civil Rights Act. Tourgee argued that Louisiana’s law did not give Plessy the equal protection rights that were guaranteed to him through the 14th amendment. A lot of Civil Rights cases were made. at this time.

The Mismeasure of A Man

The author talks about how this scientific group’s main goal was to make people believe that African Americans were racially inferior to Whites. Polygeny is the argument that the races were created separately and that non-white races were inferior. The theory of polygeny was brought from Europe to America. These racially inferior scientific arguments led to a class system with white always on the top.

The Mismeasure of Man

1. Gould defines biological determinism as “worth can be assigned to individuals and groups by measuring intelligence as a single quantity”. “It is shared behavioral norms, and the social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society.”(pg. 52)
2. Craniometry and psychological testing.
3. “Traditional prestige of science as objective knowledge, free from social and political taint”(pg. 52)
4. Groups in power
5. An enormous costs for individuals psychologically and an enormous costs for society economically.
6. 1. Reification and ranking
7. This book is about intelligence and how intelligence has not been measured correctly. A person’s worth has been determined by intelligence and ranked. Groups that are higher in society have gotten more favor when it comes to intelligence.
8. … influential and that scientists believed they were pursuing unsullied truth.

9. “It takes the current status of groups as a measure of where they should and must be (even while it allows some rare individuals to rise as a consequence of their fortunate biology)”(pg. 60)

Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief History with Documents

1. Racial mixture created problems with laws designed to keep races separate.(page 3)
2. Albion Tourgee wanted the Supreme Court to declare that segregation laws were unconstitutional (page 4)
3. Homer Plessy chosen as a test case, because he was mixed. He was only 1/8 African and he spoke French. He was born free in 1862. (page 4)
4. Why did Justice John Ferguson rule in favor of Daniel F. Desdunes riding a train over state lines, because he said that law was unconstitutional on interstate trains. However, he said that since Plessy was on a train within the state, that the state had power to control their railroad.(page 5)
5. Political rights are secured by the law, and social rights are not. Civil rights are the middle ground between the two.(page 12)
6. Some social rights are really important that they need legal protection (page 13)
7. Charles Walter Collins said that the 14th Amendment shifted the court of final appeal from state to federal Supreme Court (page 14)
8. White butchers(page 18.)

Plessy vs. Ferguson

There is a lot that goes into creating a law. Laws need to be specific, so that the meaning is clearly understood. Otherwise, someone can distort the law to mean something else. After Reconstruction, the Civil War Amendments affected African Americans rights. Plessy vs. Ferguson was the separate but equal law that affected African Americans. One very important law was the 1866 Civil Rights Act, this gave African Americans citizenship and some rights

The Mismeasure of Man

The author of this book is trying to explain how biological determinism favored those who were higher up in society. Biological Determinism was racist in how it measured the intelligence between races. He talks about the mistakes that were made when measuring human intelligence. The purpose of the book is to disprove Biological Determinism by showing that the experiments that were done were not effective.

The purpose of the chapter is to explore the ways to read texts and customers. And to explore how waiters interact with their customers. This chapter’s purpose is also to shine a light on how hard waiters work. Being literate means knowing all of the dishes on the menu and understanding how the food is prepared. I think that people who have not read Mirabelli’s essay see waiters differently. They may see waiters as a lower class, they may not respect waiters or recognize how hard they work at their job. Mirabelli is trying to fill a gap for his readers. He wants his readers to have more of an understanding of how language and literacy is involved in the job of a waiter. He wants people to have a respect for their waiters, and recognize that waiters must have certain skills in order to do their job well.

Swales’ article sucks because it does not use a lot of common language. It is really long and kind of boring and it is hard to follow. He speaks only to linguists as a discourse community. There’s good information, but it is hard to read.

The audience of Swales is fellow colleagues. He is a professor of linguistics. The gap is that his readers do not know what defines a discourse community, and how it is different than a speech community. This piece fills the gap, because it defines discourse communities and talks about how a speech community is different . The issue is that there is not a good definition of discourse communities. The danger is that people will not be able to understand.

“Learning To Serve: The Language and Literacy of Food Service Workers”, prepares the reader to be able to engage with the text. It asks the reader to think about their first job, and it asks the reader to compare their food service discourse with other friends. It also has questions for the reader to think about, while they read. These questions include: How is discourse different depending on the type that is being studied? How many literacies are there? How do discourse communities avoid stereotypes? The questions help the reader think critically as they read the text . Language is different at a food service place, a food service place is a distinct discourse community. The workers have a certain way that they speak to customers and to fellow workers. The food service business requires certain social skills from the workers. To examine a discourse community, someone needs to analyze the patterns of thought and behavior in the workplace. The author includes his own experience which gives the text a personal touch. The reader is able to understand his perspective, and get a feeling for what the discourse community is like. A menu is a genre in a restaurant, the worker has to know what the menu says. The worker needs to be able to have a conversation with customers, and use their knowledge to solve problems. The worker needs to be able to read the customer, they are able to do this through interacting verbally and nonverbally. When a customer asks a question, the waiter has some control over the interaction. For example, a waiter on bitter waitress.com talked about how they would give many details about food on the menu, and this would overwhelm the customer, so then they would ask the waiter to choose their meal. Then, the waiter could choose something that the restaurant needed to get rid of. Waiters use linguistic devices to sell certain items on the menu. Waiters need to friendly when they interact with customers. There is a prejudice towards waiters, some customers may make fun of them, interrupt them and make the waiter feel belittled. This text helps the reader empathize with the waitress, because they are able to better understand how much thought and patience goes in their job. This text also helps the reader understand that waiters have certain workplace language.

I think the purpose of Stein’s article is to draw attention to how America acts towards other countries. He wants people to think about how other countries view America, he does this by writing a rhetorical essay that is really bold. He wants people to connect the dots that people are annoyed with America, the same way that people are annoyed with the Yankees for always dominating.

1. Swales called speech communities centripetal, because speech communities, because they bring people into their community. Speech communities get people through birth, adoption or accident. Discourse communities are centrifugal, because they separate people into specific groups(jobs, or interests). Discourse communities get people by persuasion. (471)
2. The characteristics of a Discourse community include; common goals, intercommunication, genres, a specific abbreviation name, changing memberships, and sharing information and feedback.(471-473)
3. Swales says that the problems of a Discourse Community is figuring out what communities are discourse communities, and also the communities can be somewhat utopian and not realistic. (478)

1. I think that Swales thought the gap was that his readers thought that discourse communities and speech communities were the same. I also think his readers did not know all of the characteristics of a discourse community.
2. This piece fills the gap, because he explains what a discourse community is and talks about the difference between a discourse and speech community.
3. I think that he imagined college students to be reading his text, since he worked at a college. I also think he imagined other professional colleagues to read his text, and then they would share it with students.
4. The danger of an essay like this, is that people will have many questions because he makes a lot of fact- statements about discourse communities.